Model, batch, or unique item? The choice that defines your Digital Product Passport

Why Granularity Is the First Real Design Decision

When a company begins working on a Digital Product Passport (DPP), the temptation is to start with the technology—the platform, the QR code, or the data format. In reality, the question that dictates everything else is quite different: what does the passport actually refer to?

A DPP can describe:

• a model (all identical units of a product from a catalog);
• a production batch (units manufactured under the same conditions, using the same raw materials);
• an individual item (each physical unit, identified by a serial number).

This choice—known as granularity—determines how many passports you will need to generate, what data must be collected during production, the cost of labeling, and the services you can offer throughout the product's lifecycle. This is not merely a technical detail; it is a process and business decision.

One point to keep in mind from the outset: the level of granularity can vary between product categories, and even among products within the same category. A company that manufactures both furniture and electronic components, for instance, might find itself managing two different levels of granularity simultaneously.

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Comparing the Three Levels

1. Passport by Model

A single passport applies to all products of the same model, which share the same data.

Example: Every chair in the "Aria" model line points to the same DPP, containing information on material composition, disassembly instructions, and recycling guidelines.

When it works: For mass-produced items with stable characteristics over time and minimal variation between individual units.

Advantages

• The simplest and most cost-effective level to implement.
• The QR code or data carrier can be identical for every unit and can even be printed directly onto the packaging or a standard product label. - Relies on product data already present in a PIM (Product Information Management) or ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) system.

Limitations

• Does not distinguish between actual variations across production runs (e.g., a change in supplier or raw material).
• Does not allow for recording the history of an individual item (such as repairs, changes in ownership, or refurbishment).

2. Batch-based passport

A passport for each production batch, containing data specific to that particular batch.

Example: 500 T-shirts produced on March 3rd using the same cotton share a Digital Product Passport (DPP) that specifies the origin of that particular batch of fiber.

Best suited for: Situations where composition, origin, or environmental footprint vary significantly from one production run to another.

Advantages

• Provides more accurate data compared to a model-based approach, particularly regarding carbon footprint and material origin.
• Integrates with the batch-level traceability already managed in many sectors (such as metals, chemicals, tires, and food).

Limitations

• Requires linking the DPP to production data (e.g., via MES or quality management systems) and managing variable labeling.
• The number of passports increases in proportion to the frequency of production batches.

3. Individual product passport

A unique passport for each individual item, identified by a serial number.

Example: Each battery in an electric vehicle has its own DPP, which also tracks its "state of health."

Best suited for: High-value products with a long service life that may undergo maintenance, repairs, updates, or enter a "second life."

Advantages

• Offers maximum traceability: every intervention, component replacement, or update can be recorded.
• Enables circular business models (such as refurbishment, certified resale, reuse, and "second life" applications). - Supports warranties, targeted recalls, and anti-counterfeiting efforts.

Limitations

• This is the most resource-intensive level: it requires in-line serialization, unique marking, and the management of large volumes of records.
• It necessitates data governance that spans the entire lifecycle of the product, even extending beyond the point of sale.

Summary Table

	Model	Batch	Individual Product
Number of passports	One per model	One per batch	One per item
Identification	Model code	Model code + batch	Model code + serial number
Production-specific data	No	Yes	Yes
Item history (repairs, events)	No	No	Yes
Complexity and cost	Low	Medium	High
Typical example	Furniture, mass-produced textiles	Steel, tires	EV batteries, electronics

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What the regulations say

ESPR: determined by the delegated act

Regulation (EU) 2024/1781 (ESPR), which establishes a framework for the ecodesign of sustainable products, does not set a single level of granularity for all products. Instead, it stipulates that the delegated act for each product group will determine whether the passport applies to the model, the batch, or the individual item.

In practical terms:

• until the delegated act for your specific product category is published, any approach remains a working hypothesis;
• it is advisable to design systems and data flows in a way that allows for moving to a more granular level (from model to batch, or from batch to individual item) without needing to rebuild everything from scratch;
• delegated acts are being adopted progressively, in accordance with the European Commission’s work plan.

Batteries: the individual item is mandatory

For batteries, the situation is already defined. Article 77 of Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 requires a passport for every individual battery within the following categories:

• batteries for light means of transport (electric bicycles, e-scooters, etc.);
• batteries for electric vehicles;
• industrial batteries with a capacity exceeding 2 kWh.

In this case, there is no room for choice: the granularity is set at the level of the individual item. This is consistent with the nature of the product, as its "state of health" changes over time, which in turn influences its potential for reuse and recycling.

For portable batteries and SLI (starting, lighting, and ignition) batteries, the Batteries Regulation does not require a passport. However, other obligations remain, such as labeling and the QR code requirements set out in Article 13.

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Sector-specific guidance

The following guidelines represent a reasonable approach based on the nature of the products. They must be confirmed by the delegated act (or, in the case of construction products, by the technical specifications established under the Construction Products Regulation, CPR).

Electronics → individual product

Electronic products almost always have a serial number and, throughout their lifespan, undergo repairs, component replacements, and software updates. The individual product level allows for these events to be recorded, adding value to the passport for repairers, refurbishers, and second-hand buyers.

Steel, aluminum, and construction materials → batch

Chemical composition, recycled content, and environmental footprint vary from one melt or batch to another. The batch level is the most logical choice, especially since these sectors already utilize melt certificates and batch-specific documentation. A model-based passport would risk presenting average values ​​that are not truly representative.

Tires → batch

Tires are already identified by batch and production week, with this information marked on the sidewall. The batch level is therefore a sound starting point, as it leverages an existing identification system.

Textiles and furniture → model (with possible exceptions)

For mass-produced items with numerous variants (sizes, colors, finishes), the model level is generally the starting point, as it helps keep costs manageable. The batch or individual product level becomes relevant when the goal is to:

• track the origin of raw materials for a specific production run; - managing repairs and after-sales services for individual items (typical in high-end or luxury furniture);
• combating counterfeiting.

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How to choose: a five-step process

1. Check if a mandate already exists. If you manufacture LMT, EV, or industrial batteries with a capacity exceeding 2 kWh, the answer is already determined: the individual product level is required.
2. Verify the status of the delegated act for each of your product categories. If it has been published, it takes precedence over any other consideration.
3. Assess the actual variability across your production. If materials, suppliers, or environmental footprints change significantly between batches, the model level is likely insufficient.
4. Consider what happens after the sale. Maintenance, repairs, updates, resale—the more post-sale events there are, the more sense it makes to track at the individual product level.
5. Weigh the costs against the opportunities. Serialization entails costs, but it also enables services (such as extended warranties, refurbishment, or resale) that can offset the initial investment.

Multiple categories, multiple levels. If your portfolio spans several categories, the required granularity may differ for each. It is best to start with the most stringent requirement, as this will have the greatest impact on your system architecture.

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Practical design tips

• Design for the most granular level you might eventually need to manage. A system built for individual products can easily handle models and batches; the reverse, however, often requires a complete redesign.
• Separate data by level. General information (such as reference composition or instructions) belongs at the model level; production-specific data belongs at the batch level; while events and status updates belong at the individual product level.